Write a Historiography analyzing how different historians interpret the topic. What do the historians agree on and what do they disagree on? What are the backgrounds of the historian and how does their background influence their interpretation of the historical event
The radiator and heat exchanger manufacturing company which provided the tube machine data you analysed in coursework 1 now wishes to improve its output. What steps should it take, in what sequence, and why? In your answer, you should include brief descriptions of: the tools the company should use, the order in which they should implement them, the organisational structures they should adopt, how the management team can motivate their employees and demonstrate their commitment, the results they can expect and the timescales typically involved in such a programme. Your answer should ideally be approximately 1500 to 2500 words in length and include a “business case” for the changes. You may include photographs, drawings, tables etc in addition to the text. Pictures can be sourced from your experience, that of friends and colleagues or any other source, but they must be properly referenced and credited.
The radiator and heat exchanger manufacturing company which provided the tube machine data you analysed in coursework 1 now wishes to improve its output. What steps should it take, in what sequence, and why? In your answer, you should include brief descriptions of: the tools the company should use, the order in which they should implement them, the organisational structures they should adopt, how the management team can motivate their employees and demonstrate their commitment, the results they can expect and the timescales typically involved in such a programme. Your answer should ideally be approximately 1500 to 2500 words in length and include a “business case” for the changes. You may include photographs, drawings, tables etc in addition to the text. Pictures can be sourced from your experience, that of friends and colleagues or any other source, but they must be properly referenced and credited.
Prepare an annotated bibliography about images chosen on the subject of The future. You will need 5 or more images to complete bibliography. Bibliography should be 2-3 pages and should be MLA style. Entry should contain a short summary about the image or article as well as your own impression of it. MLA heading 2-3 pages 1″ margins Double spaced 12 font/ Times New Roman Due Dec 5th
Gender and Art: A focus on Sarah Lucas
Violetta Liszka
Abstract
Gender roles in society are such that the male gender is considered a dominant aspect while the female gender is viewed from a suppressive position. Such gender roles in society have extended to their representations in art over the years, but since the rise of the feminist movement, perceptions regarding gender representation of women have been improving. Progress has been achieved with regards to representation of femininity in art, where there is a shift from objectification to an almost equal representation to the masculine ideology. Works by artist such as Sarah Lucas depict a confrontational attitude where there is an intent to blur the traditional binarism of gender representation. Lucas uses art to depict the fissures between the male and female art representation as a way of aligning herself to the feminist ideals. Regardless of the progress made by artists such as Lucas, art is still created in a patriarchal system, and has to depict aspects of male dominance.
Introduction
The definition of gender goes beyond the biological identification of male or female and transcends into an individual’s inner identity. Gender is a factor that defines the sense of self. Even when gender may define the sense of self or the individual’s identity, gender roles may sometimes be reflective of the connotations held by society, rather than the individual’s commutation. For those going against defined gender roles, they may be seeking to elevate the position of a particular gender in society while risking reprimand from society. Art is one of the platforms that artists use to either enhance gender roles as defined by society, or call for changes in the perceptions regarding particular genders. Considering that society elevates the position of men above that of women, much of the discussion centers on the definition and placement of gender role of women in society. Feminists and other movements in the 21st century are opposed to the subjugation position of women and also their sexual objectification that reduces them into eroticized objects. Artists with similar ideals as the feminist movement oppose the societal definition of the position and role of women through their artwork that serves as the street where they can voice their protests. Even though most women seek to elevate the position of women in society, others stick to the societal stereotypes and advance or affirm their unequal position through their actions or inconsistent choices.
One of the visible figures in modern art is Sarah Lucas, a member of the Young British Artists. As a key figure who emerged in the 1990s, Lucas has focused on sculptors that are provocative and subvert, as well as challenge the attitudes directed towards sexuality, gender, and the body. Lucas’ use of familiar and abject materials to bring about provocative body forms brings about historical and contemporary connotations directed towards the body. Artistic works by Lucas are less flattering in the representation of women and are suspended between representative and authentic. The fact that Lucas fails to comment on whether she is opposing the objectification of women or promoting is as an aesthetic raises the question whether her works are aligned to the femininity movement or are the promotion of gender stereotypes. Even as such questions linger, Lucas’ artworks bring about the issues of sexuality, class, national identity, and gender stereotypes. The paper that follows analyzes several of her works since 1990 in trying to deconstruct her intent with regards to gender.
The Representation of Gender in Art
One of the most vibrant sectors of art has been feminist art that started out as a platform to challenge the social and political subjugation of women in society. Feminist art was not the beginning of the representation of gender roles or gender stereotypes on art. Ancients Greeks and Egyptians used art as a representation of their ideals on the human figure. While men were depicted as strong, energetic, and athletic, females were depicted as demure (Norton, 2009). As such, the social subjugation of women has been prevalent for centuries, and the issue is still relevant even in modern times. Historically, the depiction of men in artwork refers to their leadership roles and as an embodiment of strength and valor. In contrast, women in artwork are passive and eroticized, and only relevant for the viewer’s pleasure. Some artworks have depicted women as social caretakers, but the dominant depiction revolve around women as objectified sexualized subjects.
Feminist Art began in Britain in the 1960s following a combination of political activism and the critique of the historical philosophy associated with art. At this time, feminist art was facing less attention, especially because the 1950s were a period of conservatism. Social unrest and political upheaval characterized the 1960s, with an emphasis on social equality, civil rights, and peace activism (Pollock, 1996). Much of the activities taking place in this period were questioning the social and political structures that the previous generation had lived. The art world was no different as various artists in this timeline were questioning the stylistic approaches and conceptual framework used by artists in the previous generation (Kappel, 2007).
The questioning of the artistic ideals led to dissatisfaction in the art world, where the only escape was the definition and creation of new artistic roles and activities. Rather than conform to previous structures where art was traditionally exhibited on gallery spaces, new developments such as conceptualism, post-minimalism, and ‘new image’ came about (Kappel, 2007). Art in this period embraced the political and popular culture and was generally conceptual. Women had a larger role in this artistic period, and the period is seen as the beginning of postmodernism that constitutes the questioning of art forms, languages, contents, style, and intention of the artist (Collings, 1999).
Women and the feminist movement had a large part to play in the post-modern expansion, and the radical reorientation in this period saw women artists come together to repudiate established notions regarding femininity. Kappel (2007) notes that, similar to the general women’s movements around the world, the art scene was dominated by white women, even though women of color had substantial influence since the beginning. Women artists started advocating their inclusion in galleries and exhibitions, but their efforts were based on a larger call for social, political, and economic inclusion. One of the radical and most active women’s group in this period was the Women’s Liberation Movement that was advocating for an end to the artistic marginalization of women as the first step towards embracing inclusive equality for women. In March 1971, the group held its first exhibition in London at the Woodstock Gallery, and prompted further emancipation of women worldwide.
The issues raised by women artists were such that the art world had locked them out of as there were few women represented in museums and art galleries, and most importantly, women had no recognition in art history. Successful women artists of the previous centuries had been excluded from the canons of art history even though they had had unimpressive reputation. Artemisia Gentileschi an Italian artist is one such woman who had been successful as an artist in the 17th century, but her contribution to the art world was forgotten until the 21stCentury (Norton, 2009). In ensuring that women made significant progress in the art discourse and other areas, feminist artists focused on women as their subject matter. Feminist art movements introduced gender issues and the idea of a fluid subject within the art community as a protest against the existing natural construction of gender and gender roles. Fluidity with regards to gender conceptualization arose with Butler, who contends to the notion that the individual is never exclusively ‘male’ or ‘female,’ but is dependent on certain flux (Butler, 1999). According to the feminists and gender equality activists, gender is a socially constructed perspective rather than a natural construct (Beauvoir, 1988). Feminist artists also questioned the label of ‘genius’ extended to male artists and brought about a concept of pluralist variety (Pollock, 1993).
Feminist art and its intention
Sarah Lucas work can be placed in the context of feminist arts, seeing that it sheds light on gender aspects directed towards women and men, and most importantly the objectification of women. As previously mentioned, women advocating for artistic representation in galleries were not only focused on the artistic equality, but also the larger context of social and political inclusions. With the intent of feminist art being gender women inclusivity in the art sphere, gender roles and perception of women in society also played a larger role. Guerrilla Girls, a group of feminist artists from New York created in the 1980s, highlighted the extent of sexism in the art world. One of the common phrases associated with this group and that will be analyzed in this paper is, Do women have to be naked to get into Met Museum? The question that was posed on billboards highlighted he sexualization of women, by noting that 85 percent of the nude artist works are female. The group was advocating for larger inclusivity in the art galleries and museums, but most importantly, a change in the view and position of women in society.
The exclusion of women artist from artwork and even art history was because women were challenging the existing art constructs and percepts. In the 19th century, the depiction of women in art was still reeking of their subjugation and position as second-class citizen. As more women joined the artistic movement, images of women and girls were being subverted from their traditional precepts, and this was riling the art world. Art from women artists was only regarded as to the limits of their gender, and it became a common understanding that women in art lacked energy, power, and the inspiration necessary to achieve the highest levels of exemplary artistry. For the critics of women art, the lack was attributed to their gender as ‘feminine’ (Devereux, 2003). While the role of males and their values were considered abstract, female values were passive, emotional, and often associated with their feminine traits.
As the feminist artists continued opposing these established ideals, it became obvious that the intent of their art was to question the traditional concepts of the role of women in art history, as well as question the under-representation of women in art and in social aspects as a whole. For women looking to transcend the barriers placed by a patriarchal society, it became important to understand that their art was and still is produced in the confines of an aesthetic system defined by a patriarchal language (Kappel, 2007). As such, the focus for women artists has been on gender differences, but sometimes their work is at risk of misinterpretation as proliferating the gendered perspective of women as objectified individuals.
Representations of gender in art
Art like language is a symbolic medium used to represent the social, political, and economic aspects of the society at a given time. For the feminist artists, art as a symbolic medium was being used to promote dominant male ideals and the proliferation of society as patriarchal. The representation of men as superior to women and as strong and energetic pillars of society played a role in emphasizing the social constructs of male as the dominant gender. Women as the subjugated members of society were seen as passive objects duly available for the satisfaction of male desires (Devereux, 2003). Such representations were what prompted groups such as the ‘Guerrilla Girls’ to rise and oppose societal stereotyping of women that was being depicted in art works during the period. It was common to have women painted or depicted in art as objects of sexual satisfaction (Livingstone, 2000). Women were mainly nude or in precarious positions that promoted their positions as inferior to that of men.
Each representation of a particular gender in art was a legitimization of the dominant ideology regarding that particular culture. Gouma (1999) notes that representation of gender in art is a confirmation of the cultural ideology that is dominant at the time and is usually politically motivated (335). Changing the ideology is dependent on a re-representation of that particular gender which will bring about new cultural definitions on female or male identity. In understanding the position of women versus men, a psychoanalysis tool was developed, where it came up as a challenge to existing paradigms regarding the male and female gender. Psychoanalysis offered an approach to understanding sexuality and its representation, but it received objection from part of the feminist artists. Even with the emerging opposition, psychoanalysis helped explore gender and sexuality, as well as their representations in cultural contexts. Other theories developed to understand the position and representation of women especially in popular culture are the Freudian and Lacanian theories.
The Freudian theory focused on how the unconscious aspects led to the representation of gender in art through the application of aspects such as voyeurism, fetishism, and narcissism (Kappel, 2007). Mitchell, a feminist and supporter of psychoanalysis, notes that psychoanalysis should be seen as an analysis of patriarchy rather than a recommendation of patriarchy (Mitchell, 1999). Women artists had to focus on how unconscious attributes lead to their sexual and gender identities that in turn leads to the determination of their positions and oppression in society. In order to change the dominant ideology where women were subordinate to men, feminist and women artists had to understand the construction of these ideologies so as to deconstruct them. Psychoanalysis helps identify the construction of repressive ideologies while at the same time enabling the understanding of strategies to counter the oppressive status of women (Cork, 2003). Even when this tool has been positively adopted by feminists over the years, it has done little to change the gender stratification existent in society and replicated in art.
For those willing to change the subordinate ideologies regarding women, the challenge has been finding ways of counteracting the existing patriarchal narrative, and changing it to reflect the needs and desires of women. The challenge has been insurmountable to some extent, as contemporary work from artists such as Sarah Lucas and Tracy Emin reveal. Though their ideals have been on deconstructing the sexualization of women in art, their works are viewed as being on a bridge between deconstruction of these ideals or the proliferation of the sexual objectification of women. Changing the position of the female gender in art is not capable through changing the images only, but it requires changing the narratives that have been embedded in the patriarchal system. Different visual forms created to challenge the patriarchal narrative have to engage the viewer differently, but the male gaze has been obsessed with pleasure, privilege, and satisfaction.
In changing the percepts of the male gaze and its search for pleasure, privilege, and satisfaction, female artists have responded by reclaiming their bodies and sexual feelings and transposing them through art (Hammond, 1979). As such, female artists concerned with de-sexualization and de-objectification of the female body look to transgress the traditional boundaries regarding the human body. Representation of the female gender in its rightful place depends on taking the viewer beyond traditional meanings and thus distorts any aspects of satisfaction, privilege, or pleasure. The symbolic aspects that result from the new view of the body seek to dispel and suppress abjection to a point where there is a distinct boundary between object and subject. More so, the symbolic aspects are intended to differentiate the exterior visualization of women from the ideals they hold, or the role they play in society.
An assumption that prevails in the art world is that art is usually a reflection of personal experiences. Such an assumption is aligned to a historical perspective of art and is a social construction that holds no truth or is dependent on different variables. Works of art by women do not necessarily have to show a shared essence of being female, while works of art by men do not depict a shared essence of being male. The ideas that artists use to create art are gained from society, and thus women artist can still propagate the notion of male superiority in their art works (Kristeva, 1982). On the other hand, male artists can be significant contributors to the discourse opposed to the objectification of women in art and society in general. The implication is that women artists do not necessarily reflect feminist art and male artists are not necessarily opposed to feminist art. Some feminist artists are accused of proliferating the notion of the superseding male ideology, where the male is regarded highly than the female. As such, this stipulation has led to the view that some early feminist art was essentialist (Kappel, 2007). (The discussion on the work of Sarah Lucas in the sections to follow will involve a consideration of whether the artist is an essentialist or is aligned to the feminist artists’ discourse).
Artists such as John Coplans challenged the established representation of the ideal man in art. Rather than portray the male individual as strong and energetic, Coplans used his self-portraits to show wrinkles, rolls of skin, and sags (Norton, 2009). The artist uses his body in a personal and direct but also enigmatic approach. Artists such as John Coplans may be using art to represent his personal experiences or state of the body but he is essentially deviating from established ideologies of the dominant, energetic, male figure. Works by Coplans and other contemporary artists reveal that there have been major strides with regards to the depiction of gender in art. Feminist artists have been most active in trying to delineate the existing assumption and objectification of one gender while elevating the other.
Historically, female artists (feminist artists) started out their positive representation of the female gender via a call for solidarity against established notions around women. The call for solidarity may be perceived as an approach towards devaluing the patriarchal system and representation of the male gender in art, but it is actually a response to social discourses that downgrade women. The historical portrayal of gender in art has not changed even with the long period of advocating from feminist artists though significant changes with regards to the female representation in art visible. As the historical analysis of the work of art by women and the progress made with regards to feminist art, the conclusion is that women’s art is labeled as the ‘other.’ Other considerations emerging are that patriarchal institutions deem the female work as being limited to the ‘domestic’ essence or the distinctively female aspects. Failure by women artists to restrict themselves to such conventions led to their labeling as masculine, deviant, or abnormal. There may be substantial progress in work of art by women or work of art regarding women, but still, the artwork is still viewed from a voyeuristic perspective especially by the male gaze. Works by artists such as Sarah Lucas and Tracy Emin can be viewed as challenging the dominant ideology with regards to gender percepts in society and art. .
Gender and art by Sarah Lucas
Sarah Lucas is one of the contemporary art figures and feminine artist from the Young British Association (YBA). Lucas rose as one of the most prominent artists of 1990s where art was characterized by tabloid culture, use of diverse materials, irony, and exploration of contemporary aspects. Artists under the YBA were adopting aspects of minimalism, conceptualism, and pop art as a way of being more youthful in their art, as well as making their artistic content more accessible. Sarah Lucas is among the women artists who are associated with an aesthetic from the radical working class that produces art in form of sculptures from ready-mades by Marcel Duchamp.
Considering that Sarah Lucas and most artists from the YBA grew up in the 1980s, they experienced a growth in contemporary art practices revolving around feminist arts. Artists that were inspirational at this time were such as Cindy Sherman and Levine Sherrie. Works of art by Cindy Sherman seek to portray women beyond the abject ideologies existent at the time. Sherman portrayed the ‘woman’ as being strong and as an important member of society while still emphasizing their beauty. In the 1990s, inspiration on women art came from feminist philosopher Judith Butler and other feminist artists who were inclined to the notion of gender fluidity and its performativity (Butler, 2003). As such, the works of art by Lucas should be viewed from a feminist perspective, and most importantly, a contemporary feminist’s perspective. For Lucas and other contemporary feminists, the real issue in art is subverting the existing feminine and male stereotypes, but she challenges these stereotypes in a different approach from the precursors of feminist art.
As an individual who brought about a new sensibility in art in the 1990s, Lucas focused on cheaper approaches of making art and deriving imagery. The tabloid press became Lucas’ source of imagery and her works became referred to as tabloid feminism. Lucas’ work is seen as disrespectful to politics and Kultur due to its imperfections and decrepitude. Artistic work by Lucas may borrow some aspects from artists such as Cindy Sherman, but unlike Sherman, Lucas portrayed her work in less than flattering and unconventional displays. The inspiration for Lucas’ works comes from books on sexuality and pornography, and she has thus focused on dealing with male objectification, and how sexual liberation by women can counter their objectification. Her works are thus an appropriation of gender constructions and masculine tropes that she seeks to deconstruct. Casual misogyny characterizes Lucas’ works making her capable of creating visual puns that counter established ideologies and feminine stereotypes (Muir and Wallis, 2004).
With Lucas’ works focusing on femininity and the deconstruction of suppressive ideals, she has often used her body as part of art. In Two Fried Eggs, Lucas is seen seated on a chair with two eggs on both her breasts while staring directly into the viewer. Other of her works include portrayal of the vagina as densely packed meat or as a tipped over pail. Such anthropomorphism may be a challenge on the societal characterization or stereotyping of the feminine sexuality, while also being a reflection of the artist’s sexual experiences. The use of an artist’s body in art has been prevalent in the art world, and it brings to the fore the discussions around the mind-body dualism hedged in the traditional aspects. Artists and especially women artists have for long considered their bodies as ideological issues and also as important platforms to make and display their artwork (Kaplan, 2000). Cindy Sherman, Hannah Wilke, Sally Potter, and Bobby Baker are some of the artists that have used their bodies as materials and sites for art display, and this has evoked debate with regards to the usage of the artist’s own body in the making of art.
The use of the artist’s body in artistic representation has divided feminist artists into two groups. The first group of feminists is opposed to the use of the artist’s body and more inclined to development and adoption of a conceptual strategy that regards the female body as a subject rather than an object. The second group where Sarah Lucas fits in view their own bodies as a liberating tool that can be used to make powerful statements about sexuality and the female gender (Kappel, 2007). Male artists such as Dan Graham, Paul McCarthy, and John Latham have also used their bodies as a canvas for their work, but focus has been on the female body where artists want to delineate from perceptions of self-exploitation.
For female artists using their bodies for artistic representations, they often have to deal with accusations of sluttishness, narcissism, and notoriety (Schor, 1997). For male artists, the use of their bodies has often been regarded as ‘high art,’ and is aligned to the ideals of Marcel Duchamp. As evidently seen from the different percepts extended to the male and female bodies, there exists disequilibrium where feminine bodies are objectified while male bodies are seen as subjects. Feminine artists have a challenge of using their bodies as part of artistic representations while avoiding being reduced into just a body. Sarah Lucas’ use of the female body has been highly provocative and explicit and is seen more as a challenge to existing notions regarding gender in art rather than as a display of her sexual consciousness.
In trying to delineate from being perceived as their own bodies, women artists use their bodies in different ways such as in performance art. By using the female body as an art material in performance art, artists are able to influence the perception of their bodies by engaging in a direct address to the audience. Judith Butler, who opines that performativity provides a model from which the fluidity of gender and identity can be understood (Butler, 2003), bases performance art on the perceptions of performativity. In performance, the female artist’s body is used as both a subject and an object, and as such, artists are able to bring the perceptions of a ‘subject,’ where only the ‘object’ existed. Lucas’ use of her body in art has an aspect of countering the feminine stereotypes while creating new views with regards to gender and sexuality. As such, Lucas works exhibit a subverting of the traditional models of the images and roles of the feminine gender.
Not all of Lucas’ works use the feminine body as an object and subject in representation. Some of her works include the placing of monumental objects between a penis and banana balanced on crushed cars. Lucas uses surrealism and material sparseness as representations of the human body as a way of revealing the degrading attitudes directed towards women, as well as the vulnerability that may be existing in the male gender. Regardless of the position that Lucas takes with regards to gender and identity, she widely uses humor in her work to bring about detachment and ambiguity. Though her works serve as a mirror for sexism, she notes that she does not focus on solving the problem but is rather exploring the moral dilemma in gender and sexuality by incorporating it in her work (Sumpter, 1997, 8). In understanding the percepts and perspectives regarding gender in Sarah Lucas’ work, this paper will focus on an analysis of some of her most influential pieces.
Self-portraits by Sarah Lucas (1990-1998).
Between 1990 and 1998, Sarah Lucas focused on developing self-portraits that depict her in different situations and confrontational poses. Through the different poses and situations, Lucas is able to confront and address certain notions regarding sexuality, gender, and being an artist. In her self-portrait eating a banana (see the figure below), Lucas is seen holding a banana to her mouth, while staring directly at the viewer’s gaze. The artist is seen in short hair and a black leather jacket over a white t-shirt. The self-portrait eating a banana is the first of Lucas’ self-portraits and is in the form of a photographic portrait.
An Exploration into the role of Emotional Intelligence on Leadership Styles of Educational Supervision in Saudi Arabia
Challenging the using of Emotional intelligence on a Saudi context of Educational Supervision
Aims
To explore how educational supervisors make use of emotional intelligence in their leadership and supervisory relationships.
To establish the relationship between leadership styles and specific aspects of emotional intelligence employed by the Directors.
To understand how increased awareness of emotional intelligence might enhance supervisory practices that contribute to national and international understandings of leadership in S.A.
To identify the role that gender plays in influencing the level of Emotional intelligence exhibited by the Directors.
Synopsis
Through exploring the relationship between leadership styles and the emotional intelligence of Educational Supervisors, this study will critically evaluate whether the claim that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in effective leadership is true (Palmer et al, 2001). This study therefore seeks to establish the ways in which Emotional Intelligence is conceptualised and the relationship between leadership styles and the emotional intelligence of supervisors. In this regard, it will examine how the supervisors use specific aspects of emotional intelligence to lead and establish the connections between their use of emotional intelligence and their leadership styles. It will further look into the role that gender plays in influencing the level of engagement with emotional intelligence as a strategy in leadership exhibited by supervisors. This study will therefore add to the existing research studies that have investigated the relationship between leadership and emotional intelligence (Antonakis et al, 2009; Kerr et al 2006; Sunindijo et al 2007). Few studies have been conducted in S.A on this topic therefore this study will provide invaluable insight on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles within the context of the Saudi education system.
Context
Educational supervision as a practice was first introduced in S.A in the 1920’s as part of educational reforms geared towards improving school outcomes. Since then, there have been significant developments and changes prompted by government agendas and policies that aim at enhancing development in S.A. In 1957, the Ministry of Education instituted the Office of Educational Supervision to facilitate effective management of schools (Abdul-Kareem 2001). The roles performed by supervisors such as; inspecting teacher’s work, providing guidance and support to teachers on how they can improve school outcomes (Ministry of Education 1999).
Despite of the establishment of supervision office in order to improve teacher’s practice and overall school outcomes, there have been concerns that the office has not been effective in its mandate. A study by Abdulkareem (2014) depicted that supervisory leadership of supervisors has not been effective and has been marred by poor and autocratic leadership practices such as stringent inspection, commanding and judging. Consequently, problems such as tension and lack of mutual trust between supervisors and teachers and poor staff development continue to permeate supervision in Saudi schools. Therefore, there is need to improve leadership in order to enhance positive school outcomes. As a system that is still being re-established, emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept within the Saudi education system that is yet to be examined in-depth and embraced particularly in the realm of educational leadership. Its recognition and adoption may improve leadership practices among supervisors and contribute to national and international understandings of leadership in S.A. (Palmer et al, 2001).
Theoretical Framework
Emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept in S.A. Over the years, many studies on emotional intelligence that have examined this concept in different cultural and educational contexts (particularly in Western cultures) (Barbutoa & Burbacha 2006; Chan 2004). Very few studies have looked into how this model is manifested in S.A. However, in recent times there has been increasing interest on emotional intelligence particularly how it relates to educational leadership (Alghamdi 2014; Al Kahtani 2013).
This interest has been driven by the government’s reform agenda to bring the Saudi’s education system to par with other education systems around the world to facilitate economic development. Although the concept of emotional intelligence has been largely embraced in Western cultural contexts as a means for enhancing quality leadership, due to the cultural differences between Saudi and other Western cultures (such as religion, power distance and gender constructions) proper examination of this concept as it related to the Saudi culture is critical to avoid problematic results (Alghamdi 2014; Al Kahtani 2013).
Over time, a number of scholars have developed different models in a bid to provide insight on what emotional intelligence entails (Salovey, Mayer & Caruso 2004). One of the notable models was developed by Goleman (1995) who envisioned emotional intelligence as a concept that comprises of five key elements namely; self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, motivation and empathy. However this model has been criticized as being one that offers marketable solutions for self-improvement and success and adapts people emotionally solely to organisational profitability ignoring the power structures that normalize and institutionalize emotional practices (Boler, 1999).
Methodological Approach
In order to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles of Educational Supervision in S.A, this study will employ a qualitative interpretivist approach. This approach will focus on decoding, describing and interpreting the connection between emotional intelligence and leadership. This method will used mainly because it is suitable for addressing the objectives of this since it provides a framework for exploring research issues in-depth from a “human-side” (Merriam 2009). However, one of the limitations of this approach is that it leaves room for biases since it employs interpretative techniques to analyse the views and opinions of research participants, which might be biased or subjective in nature (Mack et al 2005).
The data collection process will take place in the Office of the Director of Supervisors in Riyadh. It will involve 4 supervisors and 20 teachers from both genders- male and female. The data collection process will encompass the triangulation of three methods namely; reflective semi-structured interviews, emotional intelligence self-assessment questionnaires and an open workshop. There are different tools used to measure emotional intelligence) (Simmons & Simmons 1997). Each of these tools will be evaluated in order to select the most suitable tool that will be used in this study. The initial process of data collection will involve the administration of a self-assessment questionnaire to the supervisors to gauge their awareness and level of emotional intelligence. Subsequently, reflective semi-structured interviews will be carried out with the supervisors to explore the connection between their leadership styles and different aspects of emotional intelligence. Lastly, an open workshop that will feature discussions on emotional intelligence and how educational supervisors make use of emotional intelligence in their leadership and supervisory relationships (Merriam 2009).
Since this study seeks to explore the role that gender plays in influencing the level of emotional intelligence, ethical issues revolving around the separation of male and female sources are likely to arise. As a result, it is important to take into account cultural complexities in relation to the issue of research participants. In order to address such issues and ensure that the findings of this study are valid and have integrity, objectivity will be maintained, bias and falsification of information will be avoided. In this case, objectivity will be maintained by discarding personal values and preconceived notions and solely focusing evidence from the data collected. The findings established will be verified before being presented. Moreover, extensive consultation with the Directors and supervisors will be also carried out in order to enhance objectivity and avoid biases (BERA 2011).
References
Alabdulkareem, R. 2014, ‘Differentiated supervision model: A way of improving school leadership in Saudi Arabia’, US-China Education Review, vol 4, no.3, 186-192.
Abdul-Kareem, R., 2001, Supervisory Practices as Perceived by Teachers and Supervisors in Riyadh Schools, Saudi Arabia, PhD Dissertation, Ohio University.
An Exploration into the role of Emotional Intelligence on Leadership Styles of Educational Supervision in Saudi Arabia
Challenging the using of Emotional intelligence on a Saudi context of Educational Supervision
Aims
To explore how educational supervisors make use of emotional intelligence in their leadership and supervisory relationships.
To establish the relationship between leadership styles and specific aspects of emotional intelligence employed by the Directors.
To understand how increased awareness of emotional intelligence might enhance supervisory practices that contribute to national and international understandings of leadership in S.A.
To identify the role that gender plays in influencing the level of Emotional intelligence exhibited by the Directors.
Synopsis
Through exploring the relationship between leadership styles and the emotional intelligence of Educational Supervisors, this study will critically evaluate whether the claim that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in effective leadership is true (Palmer et al, 2001). This study therefore seeks to establish the ways in which Emotional Intelligence is conceptualised and the relationship between leadership styles and the emotional intelligence of supervisors. In this regard, it will examine how the supervisors use specific aspects of emotional intelligence to lead and establish the connections between their use of emotional intelligence and their leadership styles. It will further look into the role that gender plays in influencing the level of engagement with emotional intelligence as a strategy in leadership exhibited by supervisors. This study will therefore add to the existing research studies that have investigated the relationship between leadership and emotional intelligence (Antonakis et al, 2009; Kerr et al 2006; Sunindijo et al 2007). Few studies have been conducted in S.A on this topic therefore this study will provide invaluable insight on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles within the context of the Saudi education system.
Context
Educational supervision as a practice was first introduced in S.A in the 1920’s as part of educational reforms geared towards improving school outcomes. Since then, there have been significant developments and changes prompted by government agendas and policies that aim at enhancing development in S.A. In 1957, the Ministry of Education instituted the Office of Educational Supervision to facilitate effective management of schools (Abdul-Kareem 2001). The roles performed by supervisors such as; inspecting teacher’s work, providing guidance and support to teachers on how they can improve school outcomes (Ministry of Education 1999).
Despite of the establishment of supervision office in order to improve teacher’s practice and overall school outcomes, there have been concerns that the office has not been effective in its mandate. A study by Abdulkareem (2014) depicted that supervisory leadership of supervisors has not been effective and has been marred by poor and autocratic leadership practices such as stringent inspection, commanding and judging. Consequently, problems such as tension and lack of mutual trust between supervisors and teachers and poor staff development continue to permeate supervision in Saudi schools. Therefore, there is need to improve leadership in order to enhance positive school outcomes. As a system that is still being re-established, emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept within the Saudi education system that is yet to be examined in-depth and embraced particularly in the realm of educational leadership. Its recognition and adoption may improve leadership practices among supervisors and contribute to national and international understandings of leadership in S.A. (Palmer et al, 2001).
Theoretical Framework
Emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept in S.A. Over the years, many studies on emotional intelligence that have examined this concept in different cultural and educational contexts (particularly in Western cultures) (Barbutoa & Burbacha 2006; Chan 2004). Very few studies have looked into how this model is manifested in S.A. However, in recent times there has been increasing interest on emotional intelligence particularly how it relates to educational leadership (Alghamdi 2014; Al Kahtani 2013).
This interest has been driven by the government’s reform agenda to bring the Saudi’s education system to par with other education systems around the world to facilitate economic development. Although the concept of emotional intelligence has been largely embraced in Western cultural contexts as a means for enhancing quality leadership, due to the cultural differences between Saudi and other Western cultures (such as religion, power distance and gender constructions) proper examination of this concept as it related to the Saudi culture is critical to avoid problematic results (Alghamdi 2014; Al Kahtani 2013).
Over time, a number of scholars have developed different models in a bid to provide insight on what emotional intelligence entails (Salovey, Mayer & Caruso 2004). One of the notable models was developed by Goleman (1995) who envisioned emotional intelligence as a concept that comprises of five key elements namely; self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, motivation and empathy. However this model has been criticized as being one that offers marketable solutions for self-improvement and success and adapts people emotionally solely to organisational profitability ignoring the power structures that normalize and institutionalize emotional practices (Boler, 1999).
Methodological Approach
In order to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles of Educational Supervision in S.A, this study will employ a qualitative interpretivist approach. This approach will focus on decoding, describing and interpreting the connection between emotional intelligence and leadership. This method will used mainly because it is suitable for addressing the objectives of this since it provides a framework for exploring research issues in-depth from a “human-side” (Merriam 2009). However, one of the limitations of this approach is that it leaves room for biases since it employs interpretative techniques to analyse the views and opinions of research participants, which might be biased or subjective in nature (Mack et al 2005).
The data collection process will take place in the Office of the Director of Supervisors in Riyadh. It will involve 4 supervisors and 20 teachers from both genders- male and female. The data collection process will encompass the triangulation of three methods namely; reflective semi-structured interviews, emotional intelligence self-assessment questionnaires and an open workshop. There are different tools used to measure emotional intelligence) (Simmons & Simmons 1997). Each of these tools will be evaluated in order to select the most suitable tool that will be used in this study. The initial process of data collection will involve the administration of a self-assessment questionnaire to the supervisors to gauge their awareness and level of emotional intelligence. Subsequently, reflective semi-structured interviews will be carried out with the supervisors to explore the connection between their leadership styles and different aspects of emotional intelligence. Lastly, an open workshop that will feature discussions on emotional intelligence and how educational supervisors make use of emotional intelligence in their leadership and supervisory relationships (Merriam 2009).
Since this study seeks to explore the role that gender plays in influencing the level of emotional intelligence, ethical issues revolving around the separation of male and female sources are likely to arise. As a result, it is important to take into account cultural complexities in relation to the issue of research participants. In order to address such issues and ensure that the findings of this study are valid and have integrity, objectivity will be maintained, bias and falsification of information will be avoided. In this case, objectivity will be maintained by discarding personal values and preconceived notions and solely focusing evidence from the data collected. The findings established will be verified before being presented. Moreover, extensive consultation with the Directors and supervisors will be also carried out in order to enhance objectivity and avoid biases (BERA 2011).
References
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